"Inventing," or Drawing

"Inventing" or "invenzione" in the context of Renaissance and Baroque art refers to the imaginative and creative aspect of constructing a composition.^{The concept of "invenzione" was formalized and taught in art academies. Alongside other principles like "disegno" (drawing/design) and "colorito" (coloring), "invenzione" was a key component of art theory and education.} In is the process by which an artist creates a novel scene, arrangement, or narrative in their artwork. Inventing was valued because it showcased the artist's ability to innovate and think creatively. An artist was not just a skilled craftsman but also an imaginative creator. Thus, ability to produce a novel and compelling narrative or arrangement set apart great artists from their peers. While "invenzione" concerned the conceptual and imaginative aspect, "disegno" referred to the design or the drawing aspect. Disegno encompassed the technical skills required to render the composition on canvas or any other medium. It is the act of taking the "invenzione" and giving it form.

Inventing took the material form of a sketch or drawing in thin lines that fixed the most significant contours of the subjects and served as a guide to subsequent stages of the work. Chalk, charcoal, tempera and oil paints of various tones were employed. Charcoal, a common choice for these sketches, could be easily corrected by smudging or brushing it off. To prevent this unintended smudging during painting, artists fixed the charcoal to the canvas. Alternatively, some artists opted for ink, thin oil paint, or tempera for a more permanent and precise line. On colored canvases, especially darker ones, white chalk was sometimes the material of choice for preliminary drawings.

Since the preliminary drawing was inevitably covered by successive layers of opaque paint, it leaves little material evidence, making our understanding of Vermeer's drawing procedure largely speculative. Although Samuel van Hoogstraten, a painter and art theorist of the time, stressed that this initial drawing should be kept loose, it is doubtful that Vermeer followed his advice.

fig. 1 Allegory of Virtue (detail)
Correggio
Tempera on canvas, 149.5 x 85.5 cm.
Doria Pamphilj Gallery, Rome

An example of underdrawing, done in thin brown paint, can be observed in the detail to the left of an unfinished painting by Correggio (fig. 1).

"In a painter's studio, the primed canvas would probably first receive an underdrawing, during which the planned image was more or less precisely indicated. It could be done in black chalk on a light toned ground, but white chalk would work better on most colored (either red or gray) grounds. Underdrawing on a colored ground was often done with a light medium, such as a thin, almost ink-like lead white paint, or a thin suspension of chalk in water. Academic tradition prescribed that the esquisse or ébauche should be done with white chalk, which could be wiped off with a damp rag or sponge to facilitate corrections. An additional advantage of chalk is that its refractive indices are so close to that of the binding medium, that once it is in contact with the oil, it can no longer be seen."^{Arie Wallert and Willem de Ridder, "Materials and methods of Sweerts's Paintings," in Michael Sweerts: 1618–1664 (Zwolle: 2003), 40.} Such a drawing can be observed on the artist's canvas (fig. 2) in Vermeer's Art of Painting.

Sir Théodore Turquet de Mayerne (1573–1655) was a Swiss-born physician who spent much of his professional life in England and France. He is best known for his manuscript, often referred to as the De Mayerne Manuscript, which housed in the British Library, is a compilation of notes, recipes, and observations related to art and artists' materials.

De Mayerne's interest in art materials was likely influenced by his interactions with artists of his time. As a physician, his interest particularly lay in the chemistry of pigments and binders. His manuscript contains information on topics ranging from the preparation of pigments and oils to the conservation of artworks.

For initial sketches, artists might use crayons made from materials like chalk, yellow ocher, or charcoal, given their erasability. Once satisfied with the sketch, artists could outline it using black or lac (a red lake) mixed with oil, or even ink. Some favored a brush with oil-based black, adding a touch of verdigris for quicker drying. Another approach involved standard writing ink, but with added ox gall from terrestrial animals or even fish like pike, considered a superior method.

LOOKING OVER VERMEER'S SHOULDER

The complete book about Johannes Vermeer's and 17th-century fine-painting techniques and materials

by Jonathan Janson | 2020

Enhanced by the author's dual expertise as both a seasoned painter and a renowned authority on Vermeer, Looking Over Vermeer's Shoulder offers an in-depth exploration of the artistic techniques and practices that elevated Vermeer to legendary status in the art world. The book meticulously delves into every aspect of 17th-century painting, from the initial canvas preparation to the details of underdrawing, underpainting, finishing touches, and glazing, as well as nuances in palette, brushwork, pigments, and compositional strategy. All of these facets are articulated in an accessible and lucid manner.

Furthermore, the book examines Vermeer's unique approach to various artistic elements and studio practices. These include his innovative use of the camera obscura, the intricacies of his studio setup, and his representation of his favorite motifs subjects, such as wall maps, floor tiles, and "pictures within pictures."

By observing closely the studio practices of Vermeer and his preeminent contemporaries, the reader will acquire a concrete understanding of 17th-century painting methods and materials and gain a fresh view of Vermeer's 35 masterworks, which reveal a seamless unity of craft and poetry.

While the book is not structured as a step-by-step instructional guide, it serves as an invaluable resource for realist painters seeking to enhance their own craft. The technical insights offered are highly adaptable, offering a wealth of knowledge that can be applied to a broad range of figurative painting styles.

LOOKING OVER VERMEER'S SHOULDER
author: Jonathan Janson
date: 2020 (second edition)
pages: 294
illustrations: 200-plus illustrations and diagrams
formats: PDF
$29.95

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CONTENTS

1. Vermeer's Training, Technical Background & Ambitions
2. An Overview of Vermeer’s Technical & Stylistic Evolution
3. Fame, Originality & Subject Matte
4. Reality or Illusion: Did Vermeer’s Interiors ever Exist?
5. Color
6. Composition
7. Mimesi & Illusionism
8. Perspective
9. Camera Obscura Vision
10. Light & Modeling
11. Studio
12. Four Essential Motifs in Vermeer’s Oeuvre

13. Drapery
14. Painting Flesh
15. Canvas
16. Grounding
17. “Inventing,” or Underdrawing
18. “Dead-Coloring,” or Underpainting
19. “Working-up,” or Finishing
20. Glazing
21. Mediums, Binders & Varnishes
22. Paint Application & Consistency
23. Pigments, Paints & Palettes
24. Brushes & Brushwork

Few traces of Vermeer's initial drawing have survived. In the Woman Holding a Balance, there is sufficient evidence to believe that the artist first "applied delicate lines with deliberation. A photomicrograph of the Woman Holding a Balance shows the contours of the figure's forearm echoing a fine brown line of the sketch. Some artists used the sketch as a starting point, freely modifying the forms in the final image. However, when Vermeer's intended lines are observed, it was clear that his final paint layers closely conformed to the sketch."^{Melanie Gifford, "Painting Light: Recent Observations of Vermeer's Painting Technique," in Vermeer Studies, eds. Ivan Gaskell and Michiel Jonker (Washington D.C., National Gallery of Art, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998), 187.}

fig. 2 The Art of Painting (detail)
Johannes Vermeer
c. 1662–1668
Oil on canvas, 120 x 100 cm.
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

It was once believed that Vermeer showcased some of his own drawing methods in The Art of Painting. On the evenly toned canvas, the contours of the model's billowing costume were sketched with thin strokes of white paint or chalk, and the artist began painting the laurel leaves in various shades of blue.

However, there exist many discrepancies between real working habits seen in representations of painters' studios of seventeenth century and those illustrated in The Art of Painting. Microscopic examination of the painting indicates that the underdrawing of The Art of Painting is executed with thin brown lines, in contrast with the light drawing of the painting in progress on the artist's easel. "The fact that Vermeer depicted the painter beginning with the laurel wreath alone should probably be taken as a measure of the iconographic significance of the wreath rather than any literal evidence that, for example, Vermeer painted figure from the top down."^{Brian J. Wolf, Vermeer and the Invention of Seeing, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 196.}

In nearly all depictions of an artist's studio, a cabinet storing brushes, pigments, solvents, and essential oils is shown close to the artist at work. It's hard to envision the artist in Vermeer's depiction standing up repeatedly to clean his brush or retrieve more pigment, given that such gestures would occur hundreds of times throughout the painting process. The painter's costume appears to be from a bygone era, as no similar attire can be identified in other paintings from the same period. Furthermore, based on the preliminary sketch on the canvas, the trumpet held by the model seems too large to fit within the canvas's boundaries. While some of the indications given by The Art of Painting of the painter's technique may be factual, others were meant to have symbolic or decorative functions.

Preparatory Drawing

Preparatory drawings were an integral part of the Baroque painting process, serving as essential tools for artists to conceptualize their works. These sketches provided a platform for artists to map out their compositions, try out different poses, and address various spatial and thematic challenges before delving into the final piece. The importance of these drawings extended beyond the artist's personal use. In the context of commissioned works, more detailed versions of these sketches, often referred to as "modello,"^{A "modello" in Baroque painting is a preliminary sketch, either full-scale or reduced, created by an artist as a design for a larger artwork. Its primary purposes were for client approval, guiding assistants in the artist's workshop, and allowing the artist to experiment with composition and technique. While it was more detailed than a rough sketch, it wasn't as refined as the final artwork. Over time, "modelli" became collectible, valued for providing insights into an artist's creative process. Renowned Baroque artists like Rubens and Bernini frequently used "modelli" in their artistic endeavors.} were presented to patrons. This step ensured that the artist and the client were on the same page regarding the envisioned outcome, allowing for feedback and approval before the commencement of the actual painting. In essence, these preliminary drawings bridged the gap between the artist's initial vision and the final masterpiece, ensuring clarity of intent and facilitating communication with patrons.

It might be surprising that not a single drawing by Vermeer has survived, given the complexities of his compositions and the precise accuracy of contour, scale, and perspective. Executing preliminary studies on paper is more practical and economical since they can be easily corrected or redone, rather than working out the drawing directly on the canvas. A few preparatory drawings by Vermeer's contemporaries, like Peter Saendredam that depict elaborate church interiors, have survived. One attributed to the Delft painter Van Vliet (fig. 3).

fig. 3 Interior of the Nieuwe Kerk (View of the Nave tothe West)
Attributed Hendrick van Vliet
c. 1660-1665
Graphite, pen and brown ink, squared in graphite, 17.9 x 28.1 c.
Eric Noah, New York

fig. 4 Isabella d'Este (detail)
Leonardo da Vinci
1500
Black and red chalk, yellow pastel chalk on paper, 63 x 46 cm.
Musée du Louvre, Paris

The preparatory drawing could then be transferred to the canvas in a number of ways. One of the most common and efficient was to was to prick a series of holes along the lines of the drawing with a pin. The drawing was then laid over the canvas and fine powdered charcoal dust was gently filtered through the pin-holes with the aid of a pouncer.^{Interestingly, this technique of pouncing is still employed by sign painters. The only modern improvements are: the pounce wheel and the electrical pounce machine which perforates the holes with an electric spark.T hese expensive machines must be regarded with caution since when wound up to the maximum as is needed for piercing multiple layers or thick paper, it delivers a nasty shock.} When the drawing was lifted from the canvas, the filtered charcoal dust indicated the lines of the drawings. The artist then passed over with a brush and paint to fix the lines more permanently. This procedure can be clearly observed in Leonardo's preparatory drawing for the portrait of Isabella D' Este (fig. 4).

Using this simple technique, the fresco painter could transfer a large drawings onto the wet plaster in a few minutes. The same technique was used to transfer minutely detailed works of smaller dimensions and drawings that adorned the renowned porcelain production of Delft.

Had Vermeer used the pouncing technique, he most likely would not have retained the cartoons. Very few remain from the Dutch seventeenth century. It is, however, possible that Vermeer was able to transfer the final image of his composition without having ever realized any kind of preparatory drawing. Philip Steadman, in his study of Vermeer's use of the camera obscura^{Philip Steadman, Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering the Truth behind the Masterpieces (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)} (a sort of precursor of the modern photographic camera widely known by painters in Vermeer's time) conjectures that the artist traced the image projected by the camera obscura directly on the canvas. The camera obscura would have rendered preparatory drawings superfluous. Although some scholars strongly disagree with Steadman's arguments, most concede that they have a rational basis and align with Vermeer's pictorial and expressive objectives. (For detailed information on the subject, read Steadman's Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering the Truth behind the Masterpieces, or visit his web site at: http://www.vermeerscamera.co.uk/home.htm.)

Although no preparatory or final drawings on paper of Vermeer remain, this does not necessarily mean that he had not at some time or the other produced them. Drawings, while collected by refined connoisseurs of the time, didn't hold the same value as they do today. Given that Vermeer's preparatory drawings might have been more schematic than expressive, it's plausible they weren't deemed valuable. A single "folio," like those listed in the artist's death inventory, might have housed his valuable drawings and could have been lost or destroyed.