Getting Around in Seventeenth-Century Netherlands

Travel in the seventeenth-century Netherlands was characterized by a mix of walking, horseback riding, and carriage and towboat use.

Walking: Walking was a primary mode of travel for the common people. The urban layout of Dutch cities, which were relatively compact and densely populated, made walking a practical choice. For shorter distances, especially within towns, walking was often the most efficient way to get around.

In seventeenth-century Holland, children were encouraged to take their first steps at an early age, often under the watchful supervision of their mothers, nurses, or other household members. To protect toddlers from injuries caused by inevitable falls, they were frequently fitted with a special padded head covering known in Dutch as a valhoed, or "pudding cap" in English. Usually constructed with a thick, cushioned roll encircling the head, sometimes supplemented by padded bands across the crown, the cap helped absorb the impact of falls against hard floors and furniture. Such protective headgear appears repeatedly in Dutch paintings and drawings of domestic life, including several studies by Rembrandt (1606–1669), whose sympathetic observations of children learning to walk offer particularly vivid glimpses of everyday family life. In the accompanying drawing, two women gently support a toddler taking its first steps, while the child's padded cap provides protection against an accidental fall.

Horse Riding: During the seventeenth century, horseback riding remained an important means of transportation in the Dutch Republic, particularly for merchants, government officials, military officers, messengers, and prosperous citizens who required speed and independence. Although horses offered considerable freedom of movement, overland travel was often difficult, especially during wet weather, when unpaved roads became muddy and deeply rutted. In the western provinces, horseback riding competed with an extensive network of canals served by trekschuiten, passenger barges drawn by horses along towpaths, which provided relatively inexpensive, comfortable, and reliable transportation between towns. Nevertheless, riding remained advantageous for urgent journeys, visits to rural destinations, and travel beyond established waterways. Owning and maintaining a horse was expensive, however, and therefore beyond the means of many ordinary citizens.

Carriages: For the wealthier classes, carriages were a popular means of transport. These vehicles varied from simple, functional designs to more elaborate ones used by the very wealthy. Carriages were not only a means of transport but also a status symbol reflecting the social standing of their owners, but they were often the most uncomfortable way to travel.

Roads and Infrastructure: The quality of roads in the seventeenth century varied greatly. Major roads connecting larger cities were often better maintained, partly due to the importance of these routes for commerce and communication. However, most roads in seventeenth-century Netherlands were simple dirt or gravel paths. They were often muddy and difficult to navigate, especially during bad weather. Roads connecting major towns were somewhat better maintained, but even these could be rough by modern standards. Cobblestone or brick paving was rare and mostly found in urban centers.. Road maintenance was typically the responsibility of local authorities, and the quality of roads could vary widely from one region to another. Wealthier areas might invest more in their roads, while rural or poorer regions had less incentive to maintain them. Roads were sometimes funded through tolls, requiring travelers to pay for certain routes. This was one way to fund their upkeep, but it also meant that only the more frequented roads received attention.

Water Travel: In addition to land travel, the extensive network of canals and rivers in the Netherlands was heavily used for both personal travel and the transportation of goods. Boats were an efficient way to move between cities and towns, and for many, this was preferable to the rough conditions of overland routes.

Due to challenging road conditions, waterways became the primary mode of transportation. The Dutch constructed an extensive network of canals, which were much more reliable for moving goods and people, especially in a country prone to flooding with much of its land below sea level. Thus, the importance of canals meant that road development was not a priority. Many cities and towns, such as Amsterdam and Delft, were designed with canals as the primary transportation routes.

Getting Around Delft

When Vermeer was born in Delft in 1632, the city was already more than 350 years old. At that time, Delft was a prosperous, if conservative, Dutch town located in the south of the United Provinces, in the province of Holland. It had survived devastating fires and several bouts of plague, yet it boasted a long and distinguished past. It was not only the home of the famous School of Delft of painting, but also a thriving center for the decorative arts: tapestry, silver, and faience, or Delft Blue, (click here for a detailed timeline of Delft).

In 1657, when the twenty-one-year-old painter began to exercise his profession, Delft had about 22,000 inhabitants. It had a near-rectangular shape, with the longer side running roughly from south to north, about 1.3 kilometers long and 0.75 kilometer wide. It was surrounded by medieval walls, eight armed gates to discourage potential invaders, and a navigable moat that branched out to the rest of the Netherlands, one of which led to Rotterdam and then, via the Maas River, to the North Sea. Internally, Delft was crisscrossed by a series of canals flanked by tree-lined streets. Foreigners often remarked on the city’s lovely architecture, peaceful atmosphere, salubrious water, and exceptional cleanliness.

Getting around Delft required no particular effort or means. A walk from Vermeer's studio on Oude Langendijk to his father’s inn, Mechelen, where the young painter had grown up, took a bit more than two minutes—another fortey footsteps got him to the front steps of the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of Delft’s artists and artisans, where Vermeer served two times as dean. Checking in on the latest progress of Pieter de Hooch (1629–1684), one of the most talented painters living in Delft and likely a friend, took about four minutes. A walk to the house of the renowned scientist and lens-maker Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) took about two and a half minutes. One of the longest walks he took was to the Hooikade, where he painted the epic View of Delft from the second-story room of a long-lost inn: twelve minutes by foot.

In the seventeenth century, every ambitious European painter aspired to travel to Italy, especially to Rome, where Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci had established and practiced the fundamental rules of painting. However, none of the great masters responsible for the rise of Dutch painting felt the need to go to Italy. Esaias van de Velde (1587–1630), Jacob van Ruisdael (c.1628–1682), Frans Hals (1582–1666), Vermeer, Jan Steen (1626–1679), and Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669)stayed in Holland close to their own culture. Vermeer is documented to have taken several business trips to Gouda, and once to Amsterdam, on behalf of his mother-in-law, Maria Thins (c. 1593–1680). However, it is hard to imagine that Vermeer, whose work exhibits an awareness of cutting-edge art movements, did not travel more extensively to the thriving Dutch art centers—relatively close to one another—to seek out fellow artists, exchange ideas, and inspect their latest works firsthand.

Getting Around in Seventeenth-Century Netherlands: The Trekschuit

By the time Vermeer became active as a painter, the Netherland shad developed a vast and highly efficient canal transportation system that connected all the major cities. During the seventeenth century, approximately 400 miles of straight canals were constructed to accommodate horse-drawn barges for passengers. The horse-drawn trekschuit (horse-drawn towboat) was so efficient that one could travel from Delft to Rotterdam in an hour and forty-five minutes, with departures every hour. The distance, about five kilometers, could be walked in the same time, or covered in as little as thirty or forty minutes by coach. Each day there were nine canal barges running from The Hague to Leiden and back; the Delft-Leiden service (which passed by The Hague) carried 170,000 passengers annually during the 1660s. Boats ran from Delft to Rotterdam every hour. On a summer day in 1661, the landscape painter Willem Schellinks^{Willem Schellinks (1627–1678) was a Dutch painter, draughtsman, and printmaker known for his detailed landscapes, marine scenes, and cityscapes, reflecting the natural and urban environments of the Dutch Golden Age. He traveled extensively across Europe, documenting his journeys through sketches and paintings that captured the landscapes and cities he visited. Schellinks's work is valued both for its artistic quality and its historical significance, providing a visual record of 17th-century Europe. His detailed and realistic style, influenced by other Dutch landscape painters, made his works sought after by collectors and other artists.Schellinks worked closely with other artists of his time. He was a pupil of Karel Dujardin and was influenced by the works of Jan van Goyen and other contemporary landscape painters. His works, particularly his travel sketches, were sought after by collectors and were used by other artists as references for their own works.} documented his extensive day of travel, demonstrating the efficiency of the transportation system in the Netherlands at the time. Schellinks started his journey in the morning, leaving Amsterdam to visit acquaintances in Haarlem. After completing his visit, he took a trekschuit to Leiden and then to Zoeterwoude, where his party paused at a local country house. Later in the early evening, he continued his journey by taking the trekschuit to The Hague, where he arrived at ten o'clock at night.^{Adriaan Waiboer, "Vermeer and the Masters of Genre Paining," in Vermeer and the Masters of Genre Painting: Inspiration and Rivalry, edited by Adriaan Waiboer and Eddy Schavemaker (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 7.}

Travel by trekschuit was immensely popular because other than being reliable, comfortable, and cheap, it was also possible to travel safely in any weather. Its popularity is evident in its frequent depiction in Dutch paintings, including Vermeer's own, View of Delft, which exhibits the artist’s familiarity, if not sympathy, with trekschuit travel. In the left-hand lower corner of the painting, a typical covered trekschuit rests silently moored along the triangular body of water on the south side of Delft, called the Kolk.

By around 1670, transport by horse-drawn barge had reached its peak. A total of thirty-nine cities were accessible by horse-drawn barge, and 80% of passenger transport was conducted via these waterways. "The first canal in the Netherlands specifically designed for towing was dug in 1632 between Amsterdam and Haarlem to bypass the IJ. Before this, natural waterways were primarily used in Holland. In the sixteenth century, the transport of people and goods between Dutch cities increased due to growing trade and prosperity. Regular services using sailing ships for transporting goods were established between Delft and Rotterdam and between Delft and The Hague: scheduled ferries.

"To be suitable as a towed canal, existing waterways had to be deepened and straightened. In some cases, a new canal had to be dug. A towpath was laid on one side, which needed a solid foundation. The construction of a towed canal required extensive negotiations with owners of adjacent parcels, which often led to delays. Many owners were unhappy with a towpath in front of their property and feared flooding of their land. The commotion about the construction of a towed canal was not much different from that about the construction of major infrastructural works today." ^{Margriet Panman, "Met de trekschuit op reis vanuit Delft," Erfgoedhuis Zuid-Holland, accessed July 14, 2024.}

"The passenger barge played an important part in public life; in fact, it helped to make public life possible. The stage coach went three or four times as fast, but on roads that were so bad that the coach was less popular than the barge. Trekschuiten (plural of trekschuit) sailed according scheduled departures and travelled at a guaranteed average speed of one league (about 5.5 km) per hour. The timetables were compiled with reliable connections in mind. A glance at the Reys-boek (Travel Book), published in 1689 by the Amsterdam bookseller Jan ten Hoorn, gives an idea of the sophistication as well as the efficiency of the system."^{Blaise Ducos, "The Tour of Holland: Visitors from Aboard in the United Provinces," in Vermeer and the Masters of Genre Painting: Inspiration and Rivalry, edited by Adriaan Waiboer and Eddy Schavemaker (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 105.} "The Reys-Boek also provides descriptions of places to stay, architectural landmarks, and points of interest in each town. However, it is notable that the guide does not mention visits to artists' studios, which suggests that such visits were typically arranged on a more personal basis, rather than being part of a standard tourist itinerary. The guide also includes contemporary details, like the influx of Huguenots into Amsterdam following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, reflecting the broader socio-political context of the time​."^{Blaise Ducos, "The Tour of Holland: Visitors from Aboard in the United Provinces," in Vermeer and the Masters of Genre Painting: Inspiration and Rivalry, edited by Adriaan Waiboer and Eddy Schavemaker (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 105.}

Vermeer portrays the front of the boat with a reddish canopy formed by a tarpaulin stretched over hoops that "protected second-class passengers from intermittent drizzle and rain.. Out of sight, at the back of the ship, was a wooden deckhouse for first-class travelers.. Six figures, including an infant, are stationed on the sand quay, waiting peacefully for the arrival of the schipper (skipper), the horse, and the jagertje, who will carry them to The Hague or Leiden. Vermeer must have taken a trekschuit from this very spot many times. In front of the trekschuit, two men, all soberly dressed, speak to an elderly woman.. Each of the men wears a black, wide-brimmed hat made of felted beaver fur, which at that time arrived in Europe via French traders operating in North America. Such hats were fashionable across much of Europe during the period 1550–1850. In Vermeer’s paintings, these hats appear in the Officer and Laughing Girl and the Glass of Wine. The soft yet resilient hairs of the beaver could be easily combed to make a variety of hat shapes. A good beaver hat could retain its shape even when wet. A detail from the lower left of Vermeer's View of Delft shows that he was intimately familiar with towboat travel. To the left, a nurse cradles a newborn infant in her arms. Her deferential body language suggests she is a social inferior. Two elderly women stand face to face on the right, conversing as they wait. Both wear similar headgear and blue aprons, which appear countless times in Dutch paintings of daily life. The woman to the left carries a basket. Originally, a man stood to the right of the two figures, but Vermeer painted him out. Such details remind us that Vermeer was indeed a great painter but one who nonetheless experienced the pleasures and pains of ordinary life like anyone else.

Vermeer: Moving Around

To reach Amsterdam, Vermeer would have taken an early morning walk to the north side of the Kolk, the harbor on the southeast corner of Delft, where towboats departed for Leiden, Haarlem, and Amsterdam every day following strict schedules. The twelve-hour trip was the longest in the Netherlands, but it was possible to disembark at crossing points and continue with the next shift two hours later, perhaps refreshing oneself with a drink at one of the various inns established along the route. Trips to nearby art centers such as Leiden, The Hague, and Rotterdam were much shorter, making same-day round trips not only possible but easy. Although fashion may have changed since Vermeer's time, a glimpse of life on a trekschuit can be grasped from drawings made a few decades after Vermeer died.

In 1636, the first regular trekschuit connection from Delft to Leiden was established over the Vliet River, which flows into Delft from the north. Two years later, The Hague was also connected to this route with a fork in the Vliet at the current Drievliet. The connection between The Hague and Delft became the busiest route in the Netherlands. Between 6:30 in the morning and 7:00 in the evening, a towboat departed from Delft to The Hague and vice versa every half hour.

It is impossible to know how Vermeer interacted with his fellow travelers, but the ride was smooth enough to sketch a few interesting faces inside the covered cabin or the slowly moving landscape from a wooden bench on the deck, perhaps while smoking a Gouda clay pipe^{The Gouda clay pipe is a type of tobacco pipe made from clay that originated in the Dutch city of Gouda, which became famous for its pipe production during the 17th and 18th centuries. These pipes were an essential part of European smoking culture and were known for their long stems and intricate designs.} with the boat's vigilant schipper. Foreign diarists often remarked on the beauties of the countryside. The French diplomat Balthasar de Monconys, who once visited Vermeer's studio, thought that with its well-tended waterways lined by trees, beautiful groves, and picturesque windmills, "the land resembles a pleasure garden rather than plain farmland." He also noticed a large number of swans and wondered why they were ignored by the Dutch.

What kinds of conversations would Vermeer have had? There is less than unanimous agreement regarding the passengers' behavior and the level of their talk. Samuel Pepys (1633–1703), the English traveler-diarist, approved of the conduct of his travel companions and was surprised to note that nearly everyone spoke French. Another Englishman described how traveling Dutch women, however, delighted in lascivious and obscene talk. Another related how he had engaged in a delightful conversation with an attractive young Dutch woman who became uncomfortably forthcoming upon their arrival, giving rise to the suspicion that he had been lured into a sex-for-money scheme. Yet, the fact that so many foreigners and Dutchmen of different classes and geographical origins intermingled intimately on the towboats must have had an educational effect on the populace and cemented Dutch national identity, already noted for its high level of public education and tolerance.

One unexpected consequence of towboat travel was the birth of a literary sub-genre called schuitpraatjes, or "boat talks" or "boat prattle," which were so popular that they were sometimes even read aloud during the ride. The word "schuit" refers to a type of boat, and "praatjes" translates to small talks or chats. These boat chats were a common part of daily life, particularly in places with extensive canal systems and waterways like Amsterdam, where boats were a frequent mode of transportation. This setting provided a unique opportunity for social interaction among passengers.

The Impact of the Trekschuit

The impact of these waterways extended beyond transportation. They played a crucial role in the economic development of the Netherlands, particularly during the Dutch Golden Age. Canals like the Leidsevaart (1657), which connected Leiden and Haarlem, were vital for trade, allowing goods to flow smoothly between regional centers and Amsterdam's bustling markets. These trekvaarten also had strategic military importance, as seen with the Naarder Trekvaart, which facilitated the movement of goods and military supplies between Muiden and Naarden.

The trekschuit system made travel accessible and affordable for a broader segment of the population, including foreign visitors. This boosted tourism and facilitated cultural exchange, as people could easily travel to visit cultural sites, attend markets, and participate in the vibrant cultural life of the Netherlands. The influx of visitors and the ability for locals to travel also helped to spread ideas and innovations more rapidly across the country. It likewise assted the democratization of travel by making it affordable and accessible to a wide range of people, from merchants and artisans to nobility and foreign visitors. This increased social mobility and interaction, as people from different social classes and regions could travel together and engage in social and business activities. The trekschuit system played a role in breaking down social barriers and fostering a more interconnected and cohesive society.

Decline

Despite their success, the rise of railways and horse-drawn trams in the nineteenth century led to the decline of the trekschuit system. The introduction of faster and more efficient transportation methods made trekschuiten less competitive, leading to the gradual abandonment of many trekvaarten. By the late nineteenth century, many of these services had ceased, although some freight transport by trekschuit continued into the early tweentieth century. The Groningen-Zuidbroek trekvaart, for instance, continued to be used for freight longer than others due to its connection with the peat industry. Although the trekschuit system eventually became obsolete, the legacy of the trekvaarten remains significant. Many of the original canals and towpaths are still visible and in use today, either as recreational paths or as part of modern water management systems. For example, the Haarlemmertrekvaart and Trekvliet routes are still recognizable in the landscape, with towpaths now serving as cycling and walking paths. In some cases, like in Zoetermeer, there are proposals to revitalize these old canals for modern use, both as water storage solutions in the face of climate change and as potential tourist attractions.